増田有華さんを応援しながら英語学習+α

増田有華ファンが英語学習に悪戦苦闘する日記

茂木健一郎著『最強英語脳を作る』を読みながら(3/3)


Desirable difficulty (望ましい困難)

Desirable Difficulties: If at First You Don't Succeed
…You May Have Learned More than You Thought

Four Desirable Difficulties for Better Learning

1. Mix it up: Vary the Conditions of Practice

2. Space it out: Don't Cram for an Exam

Studying in one large cram session can be tempting. 
But it isn't an optimal strategy for remembering over the long term. 
Instead, having multiple practice or study sessions spaced in time allows you 
to focus on learning smaller portions. 
Focus on quality of understanding rather than the quantity of information 
you cover during the session. 
Each study session serves as a building block for the next session. 
In that next session, think about what you covered in past study sessions. 
Linking information in this way leads to deeper understanding. 
It's a better way to study. 
You build new avenues that support activation and access to that knowledge 
in the future.

3. Alternate it: Interleave Study Topics and Tasks

4. Generate it: Test Yourself


Study better: Space it out and mix it up
How to learn more without studying more.
Posted Sep 15, 2010

Education isn't all about classrooms. Homework plays a huge role in student 
learning. Given how much time we spend studying in a lifetime, and how hard 
it is to find time to study, techniques that make studying more efficient--that is, 
techniques that allow you to learn more in the same amount of time--can be 
incredibly valuable.
One of the most important study techniques that you don't know about is this: 
Space your studying.
What does that mean? If you are going to study something two times (or more), 
try to let as much time pass as possible between the first and second time 
you study.
For example, don't read your textbook chapter and then review it on the same 
day. Study it and then review it on a different day, and allow as much time to pass between the two study sessions as possible. 
Better yet, spread your studying across numerous days. 
You don't necessarily have to study more, you just have to distribute your study 
time differently. 
When you sit down to study, mix up your topics--instead of studying one topic 
per day, study every topic a little bit every day.
The science behind spacing
Research on the spacing effect began with the pioneering work of 
Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885. Ben Carey recently wrote about the benefits of 
spacing in the New York Times
Here is more information on three studies that demonstrate the benefits of 
spacing out study trials and mixing up topics.
Flashcards. 
Study guides often recommend that student study vocabulary using small stacks 
of flashcards. 
But a recent study showed that it's much more effective to study a large stacks 
of flashcards every day. 
Why? Because the more cards you have in your stack, the more time passes 
before you go through the stack and return to a card you've studied before--that 
is, larger stacks create more spacing.
Math and Science. 
Math and science textbooks are usually organized one topic at a time. 
You do fractions, then you do decimals. Again, this may be the worst possible way of organizing learning. 
A study of geometry learning showed that people learn best when different topics 
are mixed together. 
Mixing problems means that you end up reviewing information you've studied 
before after a spaced interval. 
It also means that you can't necessarily solve the next problem the same way you solved the last one--you have to figure out how to approach each problem. 
The bottom line is that problems sets don't usually include a mix of topics, 
but they probably should.
Paintings. 
What about learning something more conceptual? In a study about art and 
cognition, participants were asked to learn the styles of various different painters. Participants studied 6 paintings per artist, and all of the paintings were different. 
The paintings were presented either one artist at a time or all mixed up, skipping 
back and forth between artists.
We thought presenting one artist at a time would highlight the crucial elements 
that defined an artist's style, even if not at a conscious level (e.g., artist A favors 
broad brush strokes, etc.) Thus, we predicted spacing would impair learning.
My research team had a combined 50 years experience studying the spacing 
effect. We should have known better, because our prediction couldn't have been 
more wrong. Spacing helped enormously.
You would think that there must be limitations to the value of spacing. If there are, they are hard to find.


Theory of mind (心の理論)

The Interface of Language and Theory of Mind

Jill de Villiers
Lingua. 2007 Nov; 117(11): 1858–1878.

Abstract

The proposal is made that the interface between language and theory of mind 
is bidirectional. 
It seems probable that the conceptual developments of early Theory of Mind 
form an essential basis for helping to fix at least word reference. 
In development from two to four years, no basis exists in research for conclusions about the direction of influence between language and Theory of Mind. 
At the stage of false belief reasoning, after age four, the role of the mastery of 
syntactic complementation is highlighted as a representational tool, that is, 
language development assists reasoning. 
The paper presents a brief summary of Theory of Mind, ranging from its earliest 
beginnings in infancy to the appreciation around age four years that others might 
hold false beliefs and act according to them. 
For each development, the parallel language developments are described, and 
questions are raised about the interface between the two. 
In particular, research that might determine the direction of influence from one 
to the other is discussed. 
More work is called for, especially with nonverbal tasks, good experimental 
linguistic work, and other special populations, that might allow a more precise 
delineation of how language and Theory of Mind interrelate at the interface.


Facebook's AI is learning language by reading loads of children's books

By Kelly Hodgkins — March 8, 2016 9:36 AM

Reading is the key to any successful language learning experience — just 
ask Dr. Seuss: “The more that you read, the more things you will know. 
The more that you learn, the more places you'll go.”
This correlation isn't just for human intelligence; it also applies to artificial 
intelligence. 
To boosts its fledgling AI system, Facebook is using a data set chock full of 
children's literary classics such as Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book
and more, reports New Scientist.

(omission)

Not surprisingly, Facebook's AI is being used directly on the website, helping 
to decide what information users will see on their news feeds and automatically 
tagging people in photos. 
The AI team also is involved in other areas including the visual recognition of 
media, language translation, speech recognition, and natural language (slang, idioms) understanding. 
The literary classics fit into this language focus and are being used to gauge 
how well the AI can understand what it is reading. 
As part of these reading comprehension tests, the AI is presented with missing 
words in a passage and is asked to fill in the correct options to complete 
the paragraph. 
The better it understands the context and meaning of the passage, 
the better it will score.

Language isn't the only area of AI development. 
Another data set released last month revealed that the Facebook AI is studying 
movie trivia, scouring the more than 108,000 questions lifted from online 
repository Freebase. 
Facebook also recently announced it is using its AI system to build detailed maps 
that will be used by its Connectivity Lab, which is tasked with designing a satellite and possibly drone-based Internet system. 
The AI is being used to identify buildings and other human-made structures 
in satellite images. 
Once identified, this building information is being combined with census data to 
generate population density maps and more.


茂木健一郎先生自身の経験とそれに即した関連する領域の有力仮説が説明され,
門外漢としては,大変興味深く,十分108円の元は取れました(笑)。

イメージ 1


にゃもし